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Priyanshi says:. June 15, at am. Raghu says:. July 6, at 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw pm. Aksha says:. August 21, at am. Tera Baap says:. September 2, at am. Rahmat khan says:. September 21, at pm. October 5, at pm. Ggs guys gusshk zys says:. December 13, at pm. February 18, at pm. They can be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers. Competition: This describes the situation where two or more organisms in the same habitat require or depend 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw on the same resources.

Organisms in an ecosystem compete for resources like food, space, light, water and mineral nutrients. Competition takes place when the environmental resource is not adequate for all. Intraspecific competition. This is competition between organisms of the same species.

For example, maize plants in a field compete for water and nutrients among themselves. Interspecific competition. This refers to competition between 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw organisms of different species, e. Predation It is a relationship whereby one animal the predator feeds on another the prey. Saprophytism Saprophytism is the mode of nutrition common in certain species of fungi and bacteria. Such organisms feed on dead organic material and release nutrients through the process of decomposition or decay.

Saprophytes produce enzymes, which digest the substrates externally. The simpler substances 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw are then absorbed. Saprophytes help in reducing the accumulation of dead bodies of plants and animals. Harmful saprophytes cause rapid decay of foods such as fruits, vegetables, milk and meat. Others damage buildings by causing wood rot. Some fungi produce poisonous substances called aflatoxins. These substances are associated with cereal crops which are stored under warm, moist conditions.

If the infected grain is 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw eaten, it may cause serious illness, and death. Parasitism This is an association between members of different species. The parasite lives on or in the body of another organism, the host. The parasite derives benefits such as food and shelter from the host but the heist suffers harm as a result. Symbiosis This is an association in which organisms of different species derive 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw mutual benefit from one another. Some symbiotic associations are loose and the two partners gain very little from each other.

Other symbiotic associations are more intimate and the organisms show a high degree of interdependence. Nitrogen cycle Is the interdependence of organisms on one another and the physical environment as nitrogen is traced from and back into the atmosphere Although nitrogen is abundant 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw in the atmosphere, most organisms are not able to utilise it directly.

Some bacteria are capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms which can be used by other living organisms. These bacteria are referred to as nitrogen fIxing bacteria.

Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the root nodules of leguminous plants such as beans and peas. Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw soil. Nitrifying' bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites and nitrates. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen. Energy Flow in an Ecosystem Most of the energy used in an ecosystem is derived from the sun.

Solar energy is trapped by photosynthetic plants. It flows through different trophic levels. At each level energy is lost as heat to space and also through respiration. Besides animals 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw lose energy through excretion and defecation. The amount of energy passed on as food from one trophic level to another decreases progressively. The energy in the organisms is recycled back to plants through the various nutrient or material cycles.

Food Chains A food chain is a linear relationship between producers and consumers. It represents the transfer of food energy from green plants through repeated 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw stages of eating and being eaten. Types of Food Chain Grazing food chain - starts with green plants. Detritus food chain - starts with dead organic material debris or detritus. Detritivores: Detritivores feed on organic wastes and dead matter derived from the grazing food chain.

Many different types of organisms feed on detritus. They include fungi, protozoa, insects, mites annelids and nematodes. Several 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw herbivores may feed on one plant. Similarly, a given herbivore may feed on different plants and may in turn be eaten by different carnivores. Decomposers These are mainly bacteria and fungi. These organisms feed on dead organic matter thereby causing decomposition and decay and releasing nutrients for plants.

They form a link between the biotic and the abiotic components. Pyramid of Numbers Refers 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw Raw Hindi Class 10th Guide Ncert 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw to the number of organisms in each trophic level presented in a graphic form and a pyramid shape is obtained. The length of each bar is drawn proportional to the number of organisms represented at that level. This is because a herbivore feeds on many green plants.

One carnivore also feeds on many herbivores. In a forest the shape of the pyramid is 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw not perfect. This is because very many small animals such as insects, rodents and birds feed on one tree. Pyramid of Biomass This is the mass of the producers and consumers at each trophic level drawn graphically. Population Estimation Methods It is important to find or estimate the sizes of the different populations in a habitat. Direct counting or head count which involves 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw the counting of every individual, is not always applicable for all organisms.

Different sampling methods are thus used. A sample acts as a representative of the whole population. The size is usually one square metre 1M2 , in grassland. In wooded or forest habitat it is usually larger, and can reach upto 20 m2 depending on particular species under investigation.

The number of each 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw species found within the quadrat is counted and recorded. Total number of organisms is then calculated by, finding the average quadrats and multiplying it with the total area of the whole habitat. The number of quadrats and their positions is determined by the type of vegetation studied.

In a grassland, the quadrat frame can be thrown at random. In other habitats of forest, 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw random numbers that determine the locus at which to establish a quadrat are used. Line Transect A line transect is a string or rope that is stretched along across the area in which all the plants that are touched are counted.

It is tied on to a pole or tent peg. It is particularly useful where there is change of populations traversing through grassland, to woodland to forest land. This method can also be used in studying the changes in growth patterns in plants over a period of time. Belt Transect Two line transects are set parallel to each other to enclose a strip through the habitat to be studied.

The width is determined by the type of habitat, i. In grassland it can be 0. Sometimes 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw it can be 20 metres or more especially when counting large herbivores. The number of organisms within the belt is counted and recorded. Capture-recapture method This is used for animals such as fish, rodents, arthropods and birds. The animals are caught, marked, counted and released.

For example, grasshoppers can be caught with a net and marked using permanent ink. After sometime, the same area is sampled again, i. The total number caught during the second catch is recorded. The number of marked ones is also recorded: Let the number caught and marked be a. The total number in the second catch be b. The number of marked ones in the second catch be c. The total number of grasshoppers in the area be T. There is even distribution of the organisms in the study area.

There is random distribution of the organisms after the first capture. No births or deaths during the activity. After the estimation, the results can be used to show anyone of the following population characteristics: Density: Density is calculated by dividing the number of organisms by the size of the area studied.

Frequency: Frequency 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw is the number of times that a species occurs in the area being studied. Percentage Cover: This is the proportion of the area covered by a particular species. For example, a given plant species may cover the whole. Dominance: This is the term used to describe a species that exerts the most effect on others. The dominance may be in terms of high frequency 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw or high density. Adaptations of Plants to Various Habitats Organisms have developed structural features that enable them to live successfully in their particular habitats.

Plants found beneath the canopies of trees are adapted to low light intensities by having broad leaves.

Xerophytes These are plants that grow in dry habitats, i. They have adaptations to reduce the rate of transpiration in order to 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw save on water consumption. Others have water storage structures.

Adaptations include: Reduction of leaf surface area by having needle-like leaves, rolling up of leaves and shedding of leaves during drought to reduce water loss or transpiration.

Thick cuticle; epidermis consisting of several layers of cells; leaves covered with wax or resin to reduce evaporation. Sunken stomata, creating spaces with humid still air to 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw reduce water holes. Few, small stomata, on lower epidermis to reduce water loss. Stomata open at night reversed stomatal rhythm to reduce water loss. Deep and extensive root systems for absorption of water.

Development of flattened shoots and succulent tissue for water storage e. Mesophytes These are the ordinary land plants which grow in well-watered habitats. They have no special adaptations. Stomata are 10th Class Ncert Hindi Raw Guide 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw found on both upper and lower leaf surfaces for efficient gaseous exchange and transpiration.

However, those found in constantly wet places e. These plants are called hygrophytes. The leaves are broad to increase surface areas for transpiration and thin to ensure short distance for carbon IV oxide to reach photosynthetic cells and for light penetration. The stomata are raised above the epidermis to Hindi Guide 10th Raw Class Ncert 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw Hindi Guide Class Raw Ncert 10th increase the rate of transpiration. They have grandular hairs or byhathodes that expel water into the saturated atmosphere. This phenomenon is called guttation.

Hydrophytes Water plants Water plants are either submerged, emergent or floating. Submerged Plants The leaves have an epidermis with very thin walls and a delicate cuticle. They have no stomata. Water is excreted from special glands and pores at the tips. Other adaptations include the following: Presence of large air spaces and canals aerenchyma for gaseous exchange and buoyancy.

Some plants have filamentous leaves In order to increase the surface area for absorption of light, gases and mineral salts. Some plants are rootless, hence support provided by water.

Mineral salts and water absorbed by all plant surfaces. In some plants, the stem and 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw leaves are covered with a waxy substance to reduce absorption of water. Ceratophyllum and Elodea sp. Floating Plants Their structure is similar to that of mesophytes. The leaves are broad to increase the surface area for water loss. They have more stomata on the upper surface than on the lower surface to increase rate of water loss.

Examples are Pistia sp. Halophytes Salt 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw plants These are plants that grow in salt marshes and on coastlines. They have root cells that concentrate salts and enable them to take in water by osmosis. They have salt glands which excrete salts. Fruits have large aerenchymatous tissues for air storage that makes them float. Some have shiny leaves to reduce water loss. The mangrove plants have roots that spread horizontally, and send some branches into the air.

These aerial roots are known as breathing roots or pneumatophores. They have lenticel-Iike openings called pneumatothodes through which gaseous exchange takes place. Pollution Effect of Pollution on Human Beings and other Organisms Pollution This is the introduction of foreign material, poisonous compounds and excess nutrients or energy to the environment in harmful proportions. Any such substance 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw is called a pollutant. Effects and Control of causes of Pollutants in Air, Water and Soil Industrialisation and urbanisation are the main causes of pollution.

As human beings exploit natural resources the delicate balance in the biosphere gets disturbed. The disturbance leads to the creation of conditions that are un-favourable to humans and other organisms. Agricultural chemicals, fertilisers and pesticides.

Factories, manufacturing and 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw Ncert Class 10th Guide Raw Hindi metal processing industries. They release solid particles or droplets of poisonous substances e. Radioactive waste: Leakages from nuclear power stations and testing sites release radioactive elements like strontium which can eventually reach man through the food chain.

Domestic waste and sewage are released raw into water bodies. Oil spills from accidents in the seas and leakage of oil tankers as well as from 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw offshore drilling and storage and processing. Water Pollution. In most cases, chex,pical wastes from industries are discharged into water.

Toxic chemicals such as mercury compounds may be ingested by organisms. Oil and detergents also pollute water. Excess nitrates and phosphates from sewage and fertilisers cause overgrowth of algae and bacteria in water.

This is called eutrophication. As a result there is insufficient 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw oxygen which causes the deaths of animals in the water.

Air pollution: Smoke from industries and motor vehicles contains poisonous chemicals like carbon II oxide, carbon IV oxide, sulphur IV oxide and oxides of nitrogen. When sulphur IV oxide and oxides of nitrogen dissolve in rain, they fall as acid rain. Accumulation of carbon IV oxide in the atmosphere causes the infrared light to 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw be confined within the atmosphere, the earth's temperature rises.

This is called the greenhouse effect. Carbon particles in smoke coat the leaves of plants and hinder gaseous exchange and photosynthesis. The particles also form smog in the air.

Lead compounds are from vehicle exhaust pipes. All these have negative effects on man and the environment. Scrap metal and slag from mines also 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw pollute land.

Failure to rehabilitate mines and quarries also pollute land. Effects of Pollutants to Humans and other organisms Chemical pollutants e. Some hydrocarbons as well as radioactive pollutants acts as mutagens cause mutations and carcinogens induce cancer. Radioactive pollutants like strontium, caesium and lithium are absorbed into body surface and cause harm to bone marrow and the thyroid gland. Communicable diseases like 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw cholera are spread through water polluted with sewage.

Thermal pollution result in death of some fish due to decreased oxygen in the water. Oil spills disrupt normal functioning of coastal ecosystems. Birds that eat fish die due to inability to fly as feathers get covered by oil. Molluscs and crustaceans on rocky shores also die.

Control of Air Pollution Use of lead-free petrol 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw and low sulphur diesel in vehicles. Use of smokeless fuels e. Filtration of waste gases to remove harmful gases. Liquid dissolution of waste gases. In Kenya, factories are subjected to thorough audits to ensure that they do not pollute the environment.

Factories should be erected far away from residential areas. Reduce volume or intensity of sound. Use of ear muffs.

Vehicle exhaust systems 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw Class Guide Hindi Raw 10th Ncert 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw should be fitted with catalytic oxidisers. Regular servicing of vehicles to ensure complete combustion of fuel. Water Pollution Treatment of sewage. Treatment of industrial waste before discharge into water. Use of controlled amounts of agrochemicals. Organic farming and biological control. Avoid spillage of oils and other chemicals into water. Good water management.

Stiff penalties for oil spillage. Use of Pseudomonas bacteria that naturally 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw Class Ncert Guide Hindi Raw 10th feed on oil and break it up. Soil Pollution Addition of lime to farms to counteract the effect of agrochemicals. Recycling of solid waste. Compacting and incineration of solid waste. Use of biodegradable materials and chemicals. Good soil management to avoid soil erosion. Human Diseases The term disease denotes any condition or disorder that disrupts the steady state of well being of the 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw body.

Health is a state of physical, mental and emotional well being in the internal environment of the body. Some of the causes of diseases are due to entry of pathogens and parasites. Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Parasites are organisms which live on or in the body of another organisms.

Vectors are animals that carry the pathogen from are person to another. Most are ectoparasites that transmit the disease as they feed. Bacterial Diseases Cholera Causative agent a bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Transmission - It is spread through water and food contaminated by human faeces containing the bacteria. The bacteria produce a powerful toxin, enterotoxin, that causes inflammation of the wall of the intestine leading to: Severe diarrhoea that leads to excessive water loss 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Ncert Solutions Class 10th Hindi Chapter 2 English Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw from body.

Abdominal pain Vomiting Dehydration which may lead to death. Prevention and Control Adequate sanitation such as water purification sewage treatment and proper disposal of human faeces. Public and personal hygiene e. Vaccination Carriers should be identified, isolated and treated during outbreaks.

Treatment Use of appropriate antibiotics. Correcting fluid loss by injecting fluids or by administration of oral rehydration solutions. Typhoid Causative 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw agent The disease is caused by Salmonella typhi.

Transmission is through contaminated water and food. It is also transmitted by certain 'e. Symptoms Fever Muscle pains Headache Spots on the trunk of the body Diarrhoea In severe cases mental confusion may result and death. Prevention Boil drinking water. Proper sewage treatnient.

Proper disposal of faeces, if not flushed use deep pit latrines. Observe personal hygiene e. Washing fruits and vegetables. Protozoa Malaria Malaria is caused by the protozoan plasmodium. The most common species of plasmodium are P.

Transmission Is by female anopheles mosquito as it gets a blood meal. Symptoms Headache, sweating, shivering, high temperature 0C chills and joint pains. The abdomen becomes tender due to destruction of red blood cells by the parasites. Prevention Destroy 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw breeding grounds for mosquitoes by clearing bushes and draining stagnant water. Kill mosquito larvae by spraying water surfaces with oil.

Use insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes Sleeping under a mosquito net. Take preventive drugs. Treatment Use appropriate anti-malarial drugs. Amoebic dysentry Amoebiasis Cause This disease is caused by Entamoeba histolytica.

The parasites live in the intestinal tract but may occasionally spread to the liver. Transmission 10th Class Hindi Nce10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw rt Guide Raw They are transmitted through contaminated water and food especially salads. Symptoms Abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhoea. The parasites cause ulceration of the intestinal tract, which results in diarrhoea.

Prevention and control Proper disposal of human faeces. Boiling water before drinking. Personal hygiene e. Washing vegetables and steaming particularly salads and fruits before eating. Treatment Treatment of infected people with appropriate drugs. Parasitic 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw Diseases Ascaris lumbricoides Ascaris lumbricoides lives in the intestines of a man or pig, feeding on the digested food of the host.

The body of the worm is tapered at both ends. The female is longer than the male. Mode of transmission The host eats food contaminated with the eggs, the embryo worms hatch out in the intestine.

The embryo worms then bore 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw into the blood vessels of the intestine. They are carried in the bloodstream to the heart and then into the lungs. As they travel through the bloodstream, they grow in size. After sometime, the worms are coughed out from the air passages and into the oesophagus. They are then swallowed, eventually finding their way into the intestines where they grow into mature worms. Effects 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw of Ascaris lumbricoides on the host The parasites feed on the host's digested food.

This results in malnutrition especially in children. If the worms are too many, they may block the intestine and interfere with digestion. The worms sometimes wander along the alimentary canal and may pass through the nose or mouth.

In this way, they interfere with breathing and may 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw cause serious illness. The larvae may cause severe internal bleeding as they penetrate the wall of the intestine. Adaptive Characteristics The female lays as many as 25 million eggs. This ensures the continuation of the species. Eggs are covered by a protective cuticle that prevents them from dehydration. The adult worms tolerate low oxygen concentration.

Have mouth parts for sucking food and other 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw fluids in the intestines. Has a thick cuticle or pellicle to protect it from digestive enzymes produced by the host. Control and Prevention Personal hygiene e.

Proper disposal of faeces. Washing of fruits and vegetables. Schistosoma Schistosoma or bilharzia worm is a flat worm, parasitic on human beings and fresh water snails. Biomphalaria and Bulinus. The snail act as intermediate host. Mode of 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Guide Hindi Class Raw Ncert Transmission Schistosomiasis also known as a bilharsiasis is caused by several species of the genus schistosoma. Schistosoma haemotobium is common in East Africa where irrigation is practised and where slow moving fresh water streams harbour snails.

It is spread through contamination of water by faeces and urine from infected persons. The embryo miracidium that hatch in water penetrates into snails of the species 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw Biompharahia and Bulinus. Inside the snail's body, the miracidium undergoes development and multiple fission to produce rediae.

The rediae are released into the water and develop to form cercariae which infect human through: Drinking the water Wading in water; Bathing in snail-infested water.

The cercaria burrows through the skin and enters blood vessel. Effects on the host Inflammation of tissues where egg 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw lodge. Ulceration where eggs calcify. Egg block small arteries in lungs leading to less aeration of blood. The body turns blue - a condition known as cyanosis. If eggs lodge in heart or brain, lesions formed can lead to death. Bleeding occurs as the worms burrow into blood vessels faeces or urine has blood.

Pain and difficulty in passing out urine. Nausea and Class 10th Ncert Raw Guide Hindi vomiting. When eggs lodge in liver ulceration results in liver cirrhosis. Death eventually occurs. Adaptive Characteristics The female has a thin body and fits into small blood vessels to lay eggs. Eggs are able to burrow out of blood vessel into intestine lumen. Many eggs are laid to ensure the survival of the parasite. Large numbers of cercariae are released by snail. The 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw miracidia and cercariae larvae have glands that secrete lytic enzymes which soften the tissue to allow for penetration into host.

The male has a gynecophoric canal that carries the female to ensure that eggs are fertilised before being shed. Has suckers for attachment. Prevention and Control Drain all stagnant water Boil drinking water.

Do not wade bare feet in water. Wear long rubber 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw boots and gloves for those who work in rice fields. Eliminate snails, by spraying with molluscides. Reporting to doctor early when symptoms appear for early treatment. Practical Activities Ecology is best studied outdoors. Students identify a habitat within or near the school compound, e.

The quadrat method is used. Observation and recording of the various animals as well as their feeding habits is 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw done. Birds that feed on the plants or arthropods in the area studied are noted through observation of habitat at various times of the day.

Food chains are constructed e. The numbers of animals in 1 m2 is counted directly or estimated e. The number of plants is easily counted and recorded and ratio of consumers to producers calculated. It will be noted that in terms of numbers where invertebrates are involved, there are very many consumers of one plant.

Several other quadrats are established and studied and averages calculated. Adaptions to Habitat Hydrophytes Specimen of hydrophytes e. Students should note the poorly developed root systems and broad leaves. Stomata distribution on leaf surface is studied through microscopy or by emersing a leaf in hot water and 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw counting number of bubbles evolved.

Mesophytes Ordinary plants e. Size of leaves is noted and stomata distribution studied. Xerophytes Specimen include Euphorbia, cactus and sisal which are easily available.

The root system e. It will be noted that sisal has fleshy leaves and stem while cactus and Euphorbia have fleshy stem but leaves are reduced to small hair-like structures. Comparison of Root nodules 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw from fertile and poor soils Root nodules Are swellings on roots of leguminous plants. Soil fertility determines number of root nodules per plant.

Bean plants are best used in this study. One plot can be manured while the other is not. Similar seeds are planted in the two plots. The plants are uprooted when fully mature vegetatively i. The number of nodules per 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw plant is counted. An average for each plot is calculated. It is noted that the beans from fertile soil have more and large nodules than those grown in poor soils. Estimation of Population using Sampling Methods The number of organisms both producers and the various consumers is recorded in each area studied e.

The total area of the habitat studied is measured. The 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw average number of organisms per quadrat 1 m2 is calculated after establishing as many quadrats as are necessary to cover the area adequately. Total population of organisms is calculated from the area.

Abiotic environment is studied within the area sampled. Air temperature soil surface temperature are taken and recorded. This is best done at different times of day, i. Any variations are noted. Litmus 10th Class Hindi Ncert Gui10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw de Raw papers can be used to indicate if soil is acidic or alkaline, but pH paper or meter gives more precise pH values.

Humidity is measured using anhydrous blue cobalt chloride paper which gives a mere indication of level of humidity. A windsock is used to give an indication of direction of wind. As all the abiotic factors are recorded observations are made 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw to find the relationships between behaviour of organism and the environmental factors for example: The temperature affects the behaviour of animals. The direction of wind will affect growth of plants.

The level of humidity determines the type, number and distribution of organisms in an area. Reproduction in Plants and Animals Introduction The process by which mature individuals produce offspring is called reproduction.

Reproduction 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw is a characteristic of all living organisms and prevents extinction of a species. There are two types of reproduction: sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes to Ncert Solutions Class 10th Maths Chapter 8 Guide form a zygote.

Asexual reproduction does not involve gametes. Cell Division Cell division starts with division of nucleus. In the nucleus are a number of thread-like structures called chromosomes, 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw which occur in pairs known as homologous chromosomes. Each chromosome contains-genes that determine the characteristics of an organism. The cells in each organism contains a specific number of chromosomes. There are two types of cell division: Mitosis This takes place in all body cells of an organism to bring about increase in number of cells, resulting in growth and repair.

The number of 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw chromosomes in daughter cells remain the same as that in the mother cell. Meiosis This type of cell division takes place in reproductive organs gonads to produce gametes. The number of chromosomes in the gamete is half that in the mother cell. Mitosis Mitosis is divided into four main stages. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. These stages of cell division occur in a 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw smooth and continuous pattern. Interphase The term interphase is used to describe the state of the nucleus when the cell is just about to divide.

During this time the following take place: Replication of genetic material so that daughter cells will have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Division of cell organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes and centrioles.

Energy for cell division is synthesised and stored in form of Adenosine Triphosphate ATP to drive the cell through the entire process.

Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are intact. Prophase The chromosomes shorten and thicken. Each chromosome is seen to consist of a pair of chromatids joined at a point called centromere.

Centrioles in animal cells separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. The centre 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw of the nucleus is referred to as the equator. Spindle fibres begin to form, and connect the centriole pairs to the opposite poles.

The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disintegrate and disappear. Metaphase Spindle fibres lengthen. In animal cells they attach to the centrioles at both poles. Each chromosome moves to the equatorial plane and is attached to the spindle fibres by the centromeres. Chromatids 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Ra10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw w begin to separate at the centromere. Anaphase Chromatids separate and migrate to the opposite poles due to the shortening of spindle fibres.

Chromatids becomes a chromosome. In animal cell, the cell membrane starts to constrict. Telophase The cell divides into two. In animal cells it occurs through Ncert Solutions Of Class 10th Hindi Chapter Video cleavage of cell membrane. In plants cells, it is due to deposition of cellulose along 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw the equator of the cell.

Cell plate formation. A nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosome. Chromosomes later become less distinct. Significance of Mitosis It brings about the growth of an organism: It brings about asexual reproduction.

Ensures that the chromosome number is retained. Ensures that the chromosomal constitution of the offspring is the same as the parents. Meiosis Meiosis involves two divisions of the parental cell resulting into four daughter cells. The mother cell has the diploid number of chromosomes. The four cells gametes have half the number of chromosomes haploid that the mother cell had. In the first meiotic division there is a reduction in the chromosome number because homologous chromosomes and not chromatids separate.

Each division has four stages Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw and Telophase. Interphase As in mitosis the cell prepares for division. This involves replication of chromosomes, organelles and build up of energy to be used during the meiotic division. First Meiotic division Prophase I Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of synapsis forming pairs called bivalents. Chromosomes shorten and thicken hence become more visible.

Chromosomes may become coiled around each 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw other and the chromatids may remain in contact at points called chiasmata singular chiasma. Chromatids cross-over at the chiasmata exchanging chromatid portions. Important genetic changes usually result. Metaphase I Spindle fibres are fully formed and attached to the centromeres. The bivalents move to the equator of the spindles. Anaphase I Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite poles. This is brought about by shortening of spindle fibres hence pulling the chromosomes.

The number of chromosomes at each pole is half the number in the mother cell. Telophase I Cytoplasm divides to separate the two daughter cells. Second Meiotic Division Usually the two daughter cells go into a short resting stage interphase but sometimes the chromosomes remain condensed and the daughter cells go straight into metaphase of 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw second meiotic division.

The second meiotic division takes place just like mitosis. Prophase II Each chromosome is seen as a pair of chromatids. Metaphase II Spindle forms and are attached to the chromatids at the centromeres.

Chromatids move to the equator. Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate from each other Then move to opposite poles, pulled by the shortening of the spindle fibres. Telophase 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw II The spindle apparatus disappears. The nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane is formed around each set of chromatids. The chromatids become chromosomes.

Cytoplasm divides and four daughter cells are formed. Each has a haploid number of chromosomes. Significance of Meiosis Meiosis brings about formation of gametes that contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cells. It helps to restore the diploid 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw chromosomal constitution in a species at fertilisation. It brings about new gene combinations that lead to genetic variation in the offsprings. Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction is the formation of offspring from a single parent.

The offspring are identical to the parent. Types of asexual reproduction. Binary fission in amoeba. Spore formation in Rhizopus. Budding in yeast. Binary fission This involves the division of 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw the parent organism into two daughter cells.

The nucleus first divides into two and then the cytoplasm separates into two portions Binary fission also occurs in bacteria, Paramecium, Trypanosoma and Euglena.

Spore formation in Rhizopus Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus which grows on various substrate such as bread, rotting fruits or other decaying organic matter. The vegetative body is called mycelium which has 10th Guide Ncert Class Raw Hindi 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw many branched threads called hyphae.

Horizontal hyphae are called stolons. Vertical hyphae are called sporangiophore. The tips of sporangiophore become swollen to form sporangia, the spore bearing structure. Each sporangium contains many spores.

As it matures and ripens, it turns black in colour. When fully mature the sporangium wall burst and release spores which are dispersed by wind or insects. When spores land 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw on moist substratum, they germinate and grow into a new Rhizopus and start another generation. Spore formation in ferns The fern plant is called a sporophyte. On the lower side of the mature leaves are sari Singular: sorus which bear spores. Budding in Yeast Budding involves the formation of a protrusion called a bud from the body of the organism.

The bud separates from 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw the parent cell, in yeast budding goes on so fast and the first bud starts to form another bud before the separation. A short chain or mass of cells is formed. Sexual Reproduction in Plants In flowering plants, the flower is the reproductive organ which is a specialised shoot consisting of a modified stem and leaves.

The stem-like part is the pedicel and 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw receptacle, while modified leaves form corolla and calyx. Structure of a flower A typical flower consists of the following parts: Calyx made up of sepals. They enclose and protect the flower when it is in a bud. Some flowers have an outer whorl made of sepal-like structures called epicalyx. Corolla consists of petals. The petals are brightly coloured in insect - pollinated flowers.10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw

Androecium Is the male part of the flower. It consists of stamens. Each stamen consists of a filament whose end has an anther. Inside the anther are pollen sacs which contain pollen grains. Gynoecium pistil Is the female part of the flower. It consists of one or more carpels. Each carpel consists of an ovary, a sty le and a stigma. The ovary 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw contains ovules which become seeds after fertilisation.

A monocarpous pistil has one carpel e. A polycarpous pistil has many carpels. If the carpes are free, it is called apocarpous as in rose and Bryophyllum, In carpels that are fused Ncert Solutions Class 10th Sst In Hindi Apps it is called syncarpous as in Hibiscus. A complete flower has all the four floral parts. A regular flower can be divided into two Class Ncert Raw 10th Hindi Guide 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw halves by any vertical section passing through the centre. Irregular flower can be divided into two halves in only one plane e. Pollination This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

Types of pollination Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of the same flower. Cross-pollination is the 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of a different flower, of the same species. Agents of pollination Agents of pollination include wind, insects, birds and mammals. Insect pollinators include bees, butterflies and mosquitoes.

Mechanisms that hinder self-pollination Stamens ripen early and release their pollen grains before the stigma, mature. This is called protandry e. The stigma 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw matures earlier and dries before the anthers release the pollen grains. This is called protogyny and is common in grasses.

Self sterility or incompatibility Pollen grains are sterile to the stigma of the same flower, e. Shorter stamens than pistils. Fertilisation in Plants The pollen grain contains the generative nucleus and a tube nucleus. When the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it absorbs nutrient and germinates forming a pollen tube. This pollen tube grows through the style pushing its way between the cells.

It gets nourishment from these cells. The tube nucleus occupies the position at the tip of the growing pollen tube. The generative nucleus follows behind the tube nucleus, and divides to form two male gamete nuclei. The pollen tube enters the ovule 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw through the micropyle. When the pollen tube penetrates the ovule disintegrates and the pollen tube bursts open leaving a clear way for the male nuclei. One male nucleus fuses with the egg cell nucleus to form a diploid zygote which develops into an embryo.

The other male gamete nucleus fuses with the polar nucleus to form a triploid nucleus which forms the primary 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw endosperm. This is called double fertilisation. After fertilisation the following changes take place in a flower: The integuments develops into seed coat testa. The zygote develops into an embryo. The triploid nucleus develops into an endosperm. The ovules become seeds. The ovary develops into a fruit. The ovary wall develops into pericarp. The style, dries up and falls off leaving a scar.

The Guide Class Hindi 10th Raw Ncert corolla, calyx and stamens dry up and fall off. In some the calyx persists. Fruit formation Fruit development without fertilisation is called parthenocarpy e.

Such fruits do not have seeds. Classification of fruits False fruits develops from other parts such as calyx, corolla and receptacle, e. True fruits develop from the ovary, e. True fruits can be divided into fleshy or succulent fruits 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw 10th Class Hindi Ncert Guide Raw e. The dry ones can be divided into Dehiscent which split open to release seeds and indehiscent which do not open. Types of fruits Placentation This is the arrangement of the ovules in an ovary.

Marginal placentation: The placenta appears as one ridge on the ovary wall e. Parietal placentation: The placenta is on the ridges on ovary wall. Ovules are in them e.

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